Our introduction continues today with a review of some key terms that recur throughout the development of Hindu thought.

SAMSARA

Samsara refers to the Hindu belief in reincarnation or transmigration of the soul. On this account, after death the spirit or soul of a person is reborn in another living thing, and since all living things have souls in Hindu thinking, this includes all species of plants and animals. This cycle of birth, death, and rebirth continues indefinitely in the soul’s “journey through the cosmos, until it reaches its final goal.” There is an important corollary inherent in this doctrine, that is, all life is governed by the same law.³

DHARMA

Dharma refers to the duties of the individual especially as instantiated in the moral structure of the universe.⁴ It is first outlined in the Dharma-Shastras where the concern is with regulation of the life of the individual and society in respect to specific codes of action.⁵ In addition to class (occupational or societal) functions, dharma includes – according to the Mahabharata⁶ – controlling anger, telling the truth, forgiving others, begetting offspring with one’s legitimate spouse, pure conduct, avoidance of quarrels, maintenance of dependents, acting justly, not hurting others, and self-restraint⁷ (Westerners might see this as the Hindu equivalent of the Ten Commandments).

KARMA

Karma literally means ‘action’ but in this setting the term also incorporates the effects of action and the consequences incumbent on the actor. In the larger sense it refers to ‘cosmic justice,’ that is, choices in life will be rewarded or punished based on – if not predictable, at least unavoidable – laws governing the universe. Karma references the relationship between what one does and what one is, recognizing the causal efficacy of human actions and the reality of human self-determination or free will.⁸ In addition, the effects of previous deeds will determine the conditions experienced or the species assumed by the soul in subsequent lives.⁹

MOKSHA

Moksha means release, that is, from the bonds of earthly existence, hence the end of Samsara (rebirth) and freedom from further karma. Moksha in general seems to be contingent on fulfillment of dharma and is brought about by asceticism and meditation especially on the identity of the inner self and the fundamental nature of the cosmos. Hermits departing from society in search of Moksha gave rise to later spiritual masters, the Upanishads, and eventually to Buddhism.

OTHER

The terms that follow do not directly affect the Hindu understanding of ultimate reality, but do help us understand the structure that sustains Indian society and civilization, and the place where the individual’s search for ultimate reality fits within it.

Artha refers to the human necessities and material goods indispensable for biological and social life. However it also refers to superfluous wealth and property which are considered appropriate objects of desire as long as the means of acquisition do not violate dharma.¹⁰

Kama refers to the appropriate enjoyment of material things. The influential Indian philosopher, Manu (4^th century B.C.E.), asserts that a harmonious balance of artha, kama, and dharma is the proper goal of humans. Manu’s summum bonum incorporates these three plus Moksha.¹¹

Ashrama is the theory or institution of four stages of life in India (also from Manu) – (1) student, (2) householder (socially productive stage), (3) retirement (the life of a hermit), and (4) contemplative (in the search of Moksha).¹²

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³Zaehner, R.C., Encyclopedia of the World’s Religions. Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 1997. ISBN 0-76070-712-X, page 217.

⁴Koller, John M., Oriental Philosophies. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1970. ISBN 684-13668-6, page 14.

⁵Ibid., page 17.

⁶Mahabharata is the longest poem in the world covering an epic martial story with added dialectic sections on politics, ethics, morality, and religion. It can be seen as a virtual encyclopedia of early Hinduism. (Zaehner, R.C., Encyclopedia of the World’s Religions p. 222)

⁷Ibid., page 39.

⁸Ibid., page 14.

⁹Zaehner, R.C., Encyclopedia of the World’s Religions. Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 1997. ISBN 0-76070-712-X, pages 217 and 233.

¹⁰Koller, John M., Oriental Philosophies. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1970. ISBN 684-13668-6, page 43.

¹¹Ibid.

¹²Ibid., page 40. For more details see Suffering – Asceticism- Part II – Hinduism, dated 4/3/2020.